[u'In mathematics, a ratio is a relationship between two numbers of the same kind ("e.g.", objects, persons, students, spoonfuls, units of whatever identical dimension), expressed as "a" to "b" or "a":"b", sometimes expressed arithmetically as a dimensionless quotient of the two that explicitly indicates how many times the first number contains the second (not necessarily an integer).',
u"In layman's terms a ratio represents, for every amount of one thing, how much there is of another thing. For example, supposing one has 8 oranges and 6 lemons in a bowl of fruit, the ratio of oranges to lemons would be 4:3 (which is equivalent to 8:6) while the ratio of lemons to oranges would be 3:4. Additionally, the ratio of oranges to the total amount of fruit is 4:7 (equivalent to 8:14). The 4:7 ratio can be further converted to a fraction of 4/7 to represent how much of the fruit is oranges.",
u'Notation and terminology.',
u'The ratio of numbers "A" and "B" can be expressed as:',
u'The numbers "A" and "B" are sometimes called "terms" with "A" being the "antecedent" and "B" being the "consequent".',
u'The proportion expressing the equality of the ratios "A":"B" and "C":"D" is written',
u'"A":"B" = "C":"D" or "A":"B"::"C":"D". This latter form, when spoken or written in the English language, is often expressed as',
u'"A" is to "B" as "C" is to "D".',
u'"A", "B", "C" and "D" are called the terms of the proportion. "A" and "D" are called the "extremes", and "B" and "C" are called the "means". The equality of three or more proportions is called a continued proportion.',
u'Ratios are sometimes used with three or more terms. The ratio of the dimensions of a "two by four" that is ten inches long is 2:4:10. A good concrete mix is sometimes quoted as 1:2:4 for the ratio of cement to sand to gravel.',
u'For a mixture of 4/1 cement to water, it could be said that the ratio of cement to water is 4:1, that there is 4 times as much cement as water, or that there is a quarter (1/4) as much water as cement..',
u'Older televisions have a 4:3 "aspect ratio", which means that the width is 4/3 of the height; modern widescreen TVs have a 16:9 aspect ratio.',
u'History and etymology.',
u'It is impossible to trace the origin of the "concept" of ratio, because the ideas from which it developed would have been familiar to preliterate cultures. For example, the idea of one village being twice as large as another is so basic that it would have been understood in prehistoric society. However, it is possible to trace the origin of the word "ratio" to the Ancient Greek \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 ("logos"). Early translators rendered this into Latin as "ratio" ("reason"; as in the word "rational"). (A rational number may be expressed as the quotient of two integers.) A more modern interpretation of Euclid\'s meaning is more akin to computation or reckoning. Medieval writers used the word "proportio" ("proportion") to indicate ratio and "proportionalitas" ("proportionality") for the equality of ratios.',
u"Euclid collected the results appearing in the Elements from earlier sources. The Pythagoreans developed a theory of ratio and proportion as applied to numbers. The Pythagoreans' conception of number included only what would today be called rational numbers, casting doubt on the validity of the theory in geometry where, as the Pythagoreans also discovered, incommensurable ratios (corresponding to irrational numbers) exist. The discovery of a theory of ratios that does not assume commensurability is probably due to Eudoxus of Cnidus. The exposition of the theory of proportions that appears in Book VII of The Elements reflects the earlier theory of ratios of commensurables.",
u'The existence of multiple theories seems unnecessarily complex to modern sensibility since ratios are, to a large extent, identified with quotients. This is a comparatively recent development however, as can be seen from the fact that modern geometry textbooks still use distinct terminology and notation for ratios and quotients. The reasons for this are twofold. First, there was the previously mentioned reluctance to accept irrational numbers as true numbers. Second, the lack of a widely used symbolism to replace the already established terminology of ratios delayed the full acceptance of fractions as alternative until the 16th century.',
u"Euclid's definitions.",
u'Book V of Euclid\'s Elements has 18 definitions, all of which relate to ratios. In addition, Euclid uses ideas that were in such common usage that he did not include definitions for them. The first two definitions say that a "part" of a quantity is another quantity that "measures" it and conversely, a "multiple" of a quantity is another quantity that it measures. In modern terminology, this means that a multiple of a quantity is that quantity multiplied by an integer greater than one\u2014and a part of a quantity (meaning aliquot part) is a part that, when multiplied by an integer greater than one, gives the quantity.',
u'Euclid does not define the term "measure" as used here, However, one may infer that if a quantity is taken as a unit of measurement, and a second quantity is given as an integral number of these units, then the first quantity "measures" the second. Note that these definitions are repeated, nearly word for word, as definitions 3 and 5 in book VII.',
u'Definition 3 describes what a ratio is in a general way. It is not rigorous in a mathematical sense and some have ascribed it to Euclid\'s editors rather than Euclid himself. Euclid defines a ratio as between two quantities "of the same type", so by this definition the ratios of two lengths or of two areas are defined, but not the ratio of a length and an area. Definition 4 makes this more rigorous. It states that a ratio of two quantities exists when there is a multiple of each that exceeds the other. In modern notation, a ratio exists between quantities "p" and "q" if there exist integers "m" and "n" so that "mp">"q" and "nq">"p". This condition is known as the Archimedean property.',
u'Definition 5 is the most complex and difficult. It defines what it means for two ratios to be equal. Today, this can be done by simply stating that ratios are equal when the quotients of the terms are equal, but Euclid did not accept the existence of the quotients of incommensurables, so such a definition would have been meaningless to him. Thus, a more subtle definition is needed where quantities involved are not measured directly to one another. Though it may not be possible to assign a rational value to a ratio, it is possible to compare a ratio with a rational number. Specifically, given two quantities, "p" and "q", and a rational number "m"/"n" we can say that the ratio of "p" to "q" is less than, equal to, or greater than "m"/"n" when "np" is less than, equal to, or greater than "mq" respectively. Euclid\'s definition of equality can be stated as that two ratios are equal when they behave identically with respect to being less than, equal to, or greater than any rational number. In modern notation this says that given quantities "p", "q", "r" and "s", then "p":"q"::"r":"s" if for any positive integers "m" and "n", "np"<"mq", "np"="mq", "np">"mq" according as "nr"<"ms", "nr"="ms", "nr">"ms" respectively. There is a remarkable similarity between this definition and the theory of Dedekind cuts used in the modern definition of irrational numbers.',
u'Definition 6 says that quantities that have the same ratio are "proportional" or "in proportion". Euclid uses the Greek \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd (analogon), this has the same root as \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 and is related to the English word "analog".',
u'Definition 7 defines what it means for one ratio to be less than or greater than another and is based on the ideas present in definition 5. In modern notation it says that given quantities "p", "q", "r" and "s", then "p":"q">"r":"s" if there are positive integers "m" and "n" so that "np">"mq" and "nr"\u2264"ms".',
u'As with definition 3, definition 8 is regarded by some as being a later insertion by Euclid\'s editors. It defines three terms "p", "q" and "r" to be in proportion when "p":"q"::"q":"r". This is extended to 4 terms "p", "q", "r" and "s" as "p":"q"::"q":"r"::"r":"s", and so on. Sequences that have the property that the ratios of consecutive terms are equal are called geometric progressions. Definitions 9 and 10 apply this, saying that if "p", "q" and "r" are in proportion then "p":"r" is the "duplicate ratio" of "p":"q" and if "p", "q", "r" and "s" are in proportion then "p":"s" is the "triplicate ratio" of "p":"q". If "p", "q" and "r" are in proportion then "q" is called a "mean proportional" to (or the geometric mean of) "p" and "r". Similarly, if "p", "q", "r" and "s" are in proportion then "q" and "r" are called two mean proportionals to "p" and "s".',
u'Number of terms and use of fractions.',
u'In general, a comparison of the quantities of a two-entity ratio can be expressed as a fraction derived from the ratio. For example, in a ratio of 2:3, the amount, size, volume, or quantity of the first entity is formula_2 that of the second entity.',
u'If there are 2 oranges and 3 apples, the ratio of oranges to apples is 2:3, and the ratio of oranges to the total number of pieces of fruit is 2:5. These ratios can also be expressed in fraction form: there are 2/3 as many oranges as apples, and 2/5 of the pieces of fruit are oranges. If orange juice concentrate is to be diluted with water in the ratio 1:4, then one part of concentrate is mixed with four parts of water, giving five parts total; the amount of orange juice concentrate is 1/4 the amount of water, while the amount of orange juice concentrate is 1/5 of the total liquid. In both ratios and fractions, it is important to be clear what is being compared to what, and beginners often make mistakes for this reason.',
u'Fractions can also be inferred from ratios with more than two entities; however, a ratio with more than two entities cannot be completely converted into a single fraction, because a fraction can only compare two quantities. A separate fraction can be used to compare the quantities of any two of the entities covered by the ratio: for example, from a ratio of 2:3:7 we can infer that the quantity of the second entity is formula_3 that of the third entity.',
u'Proportions and percentage ratios.',
u'If we multiply all quantities involved in a ratio by the same number, the ratio remains valid. For example, a ratio of 3:2 is the same as 12:8. It is usual either to reduce terms to the lowest common denominator, or to express them in parts per hundred (percent).',
u'If a mixture contains substances A, B, C and D in the ratio 5:9:4:2 then there are 5 parts of A for every 9 parts of B, 4 parts of C and 2 parts of D. As 5+9+4+2=20, the total mixture contains 5/20 of A (5 parts out of 20), 9/20 of B, 4/20 of C, and 2/20 of D. If we divide all numbers by the total and multiply by 100%, we have converted to percentages: 25% A, 45% B, 20% C, and 10% D (equivalent to writing the ratio as 25:45:20:10).',
u'If the two or more ratio quantities encompass all of the quantities in a particular situation, it is said that "the whole" contains the sum of the parts: for example, a fruit basket containing two apples and three oranges and no other fruit is made up of two parts apples and three parts oranges. In this case, formula_4, or 40% of the whole is apples and formula_5, or 60% of the whole is oranges. This comparison of a specific quantity to "the whole" is called a proportion.',
u'Reduction.',
u'Ratios can be reduced (as fractions are) by dividing each quantity by the common factors of all the quantities. As for fractions, the simplest form is considered that in which the numbers in the ratio are the smallest possible integers.',
u'Thus, the ratio 40:60 is equivalent in meaning to the ratio 2:3, the latter being obtained from the former by dividing both quantities by 20. Mathematically, we write 40:60 = 2:3, or equivalently 40:60::2:3. The verbal equivalent is "40 is to 60 as 2 is to 3."',
u'A ratio that has integers for both quantities and that cannot be reduced any further (using integers) is said to be in simplest form or lowest terms.',
u'Sometimes it is useful to write a ratio in the form 1:"x" or "x":1, where "x" is not necessarily an integer, to enable comparisons of different ratios. For example, the ratio 4:5 can be written as 1:1.25 (dividing both sides by 4) Alternatively, it can be written as 0.8:1 (dividing both sides by 5).',
u'Where the context makes the meaning clear, a ratio in this form is sometimes written without the 1 and the colon, though, mathematically, this makes it a factor or multiplier.',
u'Dilution ratio.',
u'Ratios are often used for simple dilutions applied in chemistry and biology. A simple dilution is one in which a unit volume of a liquid material of interest is combined with an appropriate volume of a solvent liquid to achieve the desired concentration. The dilution factor is the total number of unit volumes in which the material is dissolved. The diluted material must then be thoroughly mixed to achieve the true dilution. For example, a 1:5 dilution (verbalize as "1 to 5" dilution) entails combining 1 unit volume of solute (the material to be diluted) with (approximately) 4 unit volumes of the solvent to give 5 units of total volume. (Some solutions and mixtures take up slightly less volume than their components.)',
u'The dilution factor is frequently expressed using exponents: 1:5 would be 5e\u22121 (5\u22121 i.e. one-fifth:one); 1:100 would be 10e\u22122 (10\u22122 i.e. one hundredth:one), and so on.',
u'There is often confusion between dilution ratio (1:n meaning 1 part solute to n parts solvent) and dilution factor (1:n+1) where the second number (n+1) represents the total volume of solute + solvent. In scientific and serial dilutions, the given ratio (or factor) often means the ratio to the final volume, not to just the solvent. The factors then can easily be multiplied to give an overall dilution factor.',
u'In other areas of science such as pharmacy, and in non-scientific usage, a dilution is normally given as a plain ratio of solvent to solute.',
u'Irrational ratios.',
u'Some ratios are between incommensurable quantities\u2014quantities whose ratio is an irrational number. The earliest discovered example, found by the Pythagoreans, is the ratio of the diagonal to the side of a square, which is the square root of 2.',
u"The ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is called pi, and is not only irrational but also transcendental.",
u'Another well-known example is the golden ratio, which is defined as both sides of the equality "a:b" = ("a+b"):"a". Writing this in fractional terms as formula_6 and finding the positive solution gives the golden ratio formula_7 which is irrational. Thus at least one of "a" and "b" has to be irrational for them to be in the golden ratio. An example of an occurrence of the golden ratio is as the limiting value of the ratio of two successive Fibonacci numbers: even though the "n"-th such ratio is the ratio of two integers and hence is rational, the limit of the sequence of these ratios as "n" goes to infinity is the irrational golden ratio.',
u'Similarly, the silver ratio is defined as both sides of the equality "a:b" = (2"a+b"):"a". Again writing it in fractional terms and obtaining the positive solution, we obtain formula_8 which is irrational, so of two quantities "a" and "b" in the silver ratio at least one of them must be irrational.',
u'Odds.',
u'"Odds" (as in gambling) are expressed as a ratio. For example, odds of "7 to 3 against" (7:3) mean that there are seven chances that the event will not happen to every three chances that it will happen. The probability of success is 30%. In every ten trials, there are expected to be three wins and seven losses.',
u'Different units.',
u'Ratios are unitless when they relate quantities in units of the same dimension.',
u'For example, the ratio 1 minute : 40 seconds can be reduced by changing the first value to 60 seconds. Once the units are the same, they can be omitted, and the ratio can be reduced to 3:2.',
u'In chemistry, mass concentration "ratios" are usually expressed as w/v percentages, and are really proportions.',
u'For example, a concentration of 3% w/v usually means 3g of substance in every 100mL of solution. This cannot easily be converted to a pure ratio because of density considerations, and the second figure is the "total" amount, not the volume of solvent.',
u'Financial ratios.',
u'Various financial ratios are used in the fundamental analysis of a business, for example the price\u2013earnings ratio is commonly quoted for shares.',
u'Triangular coordinates.',
u'The locations of points relative to a triangle with vertices "A", "B", and "C" and sides "AB", "BC", and "CA" are often expressed in extended ratio form as "triangular coordinates". ',
u'In barycentric coordinates, a point with coordinates formula_9 is the point upon which a weightless sheet of metal in the shape and size of the triangle would exactly balance if weights were put on the vertices, with the ratio of the weights at "A" and "B" being formula_10 the ratio of the weights at "B" and "C" being formula_11 and therefore the ratio of weights at "A" and "C" being formula_12',
u'In trilinear coordinates, a point with coordinates "x:y:z" has perpendicular distances to side "BC" (across from vertex "A") and side "CA" (across from vertex "B") in the ratio "x:y", distances to side "CA" and side "AB" (across from "C") in the ratio "y:z", and therefore distances to sides "BC" and "AB" in the ratio "x:z".',
u'Since all information is expressed in terms of ratios (the individual numbers denoted by formula_13 "x, y," and "z" have no meaning by themselves), a triangle analysis using barycentric or trilinear coordinates applies regardless of the size of the triangle.']